CONFUCIUS held that the encouragement of the fine arts was no less a duty of the state than the protection of the people from foreign foes and the suppression of internal disorder. The Fine Arts in General. "When good government prevails in the empire, ceremonies, music, and punitive military expeditions proceed from the emperor." (Analects, bk. xvi., c. ii., v. i.) This saying of Confucius, recorded in the "Analects" and suggesting that wise patronage and encouragement of art by the government which has distinguished the most enlightened governments of ancient and of modern times, was re-enforced without ceasing by Mencius when he rebuked princes who indulged themselves, but failed to share their pleasures with the meanest citizen. Thus he said: "If the people are not able to enjoy themselves, they condemn them that are over them. Thus to condemn their superiors when they cannot enjoy themselves is wrong; but when they that are over the people do not make pleasure a thing common to all as
And again, speaking of beauty in woman: "If Your Majesty loves beauty, let the people be able to gratify the same feeling!" (Bk. i., pt. ii., c. v., v. 5.) Confucius repeatedly emphasized the importance of the cultivation of the arts, as when he said of himself: "When I had no official employment, I acquired many arts." (Analects, bk. ix., c. vi., v. 4.) Among these were, of course, letters in which he excelled all others, ceremonies in which he had no peer, and music in which he was also trained, both as a critic and as a performer. To others he gave this counsel: "Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts!" (Analects, bk. vii., c. vi., v. 4.) "It is by the Odes that the mind is aroused. It is by the rules of propriety that the character is established." (Analects, bk. viii., c. viii., v. 1, 2.) In the "Li Ki" is this admonition: "A scholar should constantly pursue what is virtuous and find recreation in the arts." (Bk. xv., v. 22.) His disciples' related of him: "The Master's frequent themes of discourse were: the Odes, History, and the maintenance of the rules of propriety." (Analects, bk. vii., c. xvii.) "There were four things which the Master taught: letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness." (Analects, bk. vii., c. xxiv.) The following disjointed passages, apropos of The foregoing reference to colour implies appreciation of painting which, however, is seldom, if ever, referred to and seems to have been in an undeveloped state, compared, for instance, with poetry or music. The following from the "Analects" appears to refer to it, however: "Tsze-hea asked, saying, 'What is the meaning of the passage: "The pretty dimples of her artful smile! The well-defined black and white of her eye! The plain ground for the colours!"?' The Master answered: 'The business of laying on the colours follows the preparation of the plain ground." (Bk. iii., c. viii., v. 1, 2.) The value of beauty for beauty's sake, even though it be but the beauty of ornament or of accomplishments, was enforced by Tsze-kung, That it will be beneficial for a state to encourage and foster the arts, because of their civilizing effect upon the people, these words from the "Li Ki" may be quoted to illustrate: "Confucius said: 'When you enter a state you can know what subjects have been taught. If they show themselves men who are mild and gentle, sincere and good, they have been taught from the Book of Poetry. . . . If they be big-hearted and generous, bland and honest, they have been taught from the Book of Music."' (Bk. xxiii., 1.) Poetry and Letters. "In the Book of Poetry are three hundred pieces, but the design of them all may be embraced in one sentence: 'Have no depraved thoughts!'" (Analects, bk. ii., c. ii.) The importance of poetry and of good literature in general was frequently emphasized as in this passage from the "Analects" by Confucius who on one occasion addressed his disciples, saying: "My children, why do you not study the Book of Mencius seems to have been the earliest to make use of this metaphor in describing the delights and benefits of reading: "When a scholar feels that his friendship with all the virtuous scholars of the empire is not sufficient, he proceeds to ascend to consider the men of antiquity. He repeats their poems and reads their books and, as he does not know what they were as men, to ascertain this, he considers the conditions of their time. This is to ascend and make them his friends." (Bk. v., pt. ii., c. viii., v. 2.) The manner in which Confucius enjoined the study of poetry upon his eldest son is told in this conversation with Chin K‘ang: "Ch‘in K‘ang asked Pih-yu, saying, 'Have you had any lessons from your father different from what we have all heard?' Pih-yu replied: 'No. He was standing alone once, when I passed below the hall with hasty steps, and said to me: "Have you learned the Odes?" On my replying, "Not yet," he added: "If you do not learn the Odes, you will not be fit to converse with." I retired and studied the Odes.'" (Analects, bk. xvi., c. xiii., v. 1, 2.) That learning should not be merely by rote, that The finely discriminating literary taste of Confucius was the marvel of his time and his canons are yet generally accepted. He is even represented as saying of himself, in all modesty: "In letters I am perhaps equal to other men." (Analects, bk. vii., c. xxxii.) Still his views were of the simplest, the most naïve. Thus, for instance, he says, tersely: "Of language, it is sufficient that it convey the meaning." (Analects, bk., xv., c. xl.) Yet, well pondered, this saying is both true and discerning; for comprehensive and accurate conveyance of the precise meaning in its every shade and distinction is the office of the most consummate literary art. When Confucius was in Wei and was asked, by Tsze-loo, his pupil, what he would consider the first thing to do in administering the government of Wei, he replied: "What is first necessary is to correct names," i.e., the names of things, and said in explanation: "If names be not correct, language
The mischiefs which arise from miscomprehension, due to the inexact use of language, he painted in strong colours, and then said: "Therefore the superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be rightly spoken, so that what he says may be fulfilled to the letter. What the superior man requires is just that in his language there may be nothing inaccurate." (Analects, bk. xiii., c. iii., v. 7.) That a man's diction should also be guarded against inelegance and coarseness, the disciple Tsang declares in this: "There are three principles of conduct which the man of high rank should consider especially important: that in his deportment and manner he keep from violence and heedlessness; that in regulating his countenance he keep near to sincerity; that in his words and tones he keep far from lowness and impropriety." (Analects, bk. viii., c. iv., v. 3.) The emphasis upon "far" is worthy of special note. Certainly Confucius was so completely removed from ignoring the beauties and even the subtleties of style, that he was the most eminent of all the Chinese ancients for simplicity, purity, elegance, and exactitude of language, both spoken and written. He had, also, the conception that it is only he who can discriminate finely between expressions that can divine the thought from the spoken or In the "Li Ki" is thus described the accepted manner of elegant speech: "The style prized in conversation is that it should be grave and distinct." (Bk. xv., 23.) The usefulness of letters and of association with men of literary taste, in forming character and confirming it, the disciple Tsang set forth as follows: "The superior man on literary grounds meets with his friends and by their friendship helps his virtue." (Analects, bk. xii., c. xxiii.) And the inadequacy of both the written and the spoken word to express the highest, noblest, and sublimest thought, is set forth in this saying of Confucius, taken from the "Yi King" (appendix iii., sect. i., c. xii., 76): "The written characters are not the full exponent of speech and speech is not the full expression of ideas." Music. "Music produces pleasure which human nature cannot be without." (Li Ki, bk. xvii., sect. iii.) "Virtue is the strong stem of human nature and music is the blossoming of virtue." (Li Ki, bk. xvii., sect. ii., 21.) These eloquent tributes to both the charm and the usefulness of music are from the "Li Ki," in which much attention is given to this fascinating art, which seems to have been developed in ancient China far beyond any other of the fine arts. In the "Analects," also, Confucius has said: "If a man be without the virtues proper to humanity, what has he to do with music?" (Analects, bk. iii., c. iii.) Its development was already ancient in his day; and, according to the "Li Ki," the tradition ran: "It was by music that the ancient kings gave appropriate expression to their joy." (Bk. xvii., sect. iii., 30.) It was also said in this book of the olden days: "He [the emperor] had music at his meals." But the most significant of the traditions there found was this: "In music the sages found pleasure and that it could be used to make the hearts of the people good. Because of the
Of singing it was there said: "All the modulations of the voice arise from the mind, and the various affections of the mind are produced by things external to it. . . . Music is the production of the modulations of the voice and its source is in the affections of the mind as it is influenced by external things." (Bk. xvii., sect. i., 1, 2.) That music is not merely an expression of what may be in the mind, be it good or bad, but also a powerful influence upon it, for weal or ill, is affirmed by Tsze-hsia in the "Li Ki" in these words: "The airs of Kang go to wild excess and debauch the mind; those of Sung speak of slothful indulgence and of women, and submerge the mind; those of Wei are strenuous and fast and perplex the mind; and those of Khi are violent and depraved and make the mind arrogant. The airs of these four states all stimulate libidinous desire and are injurious to virtue." (Bk. xvii., sect. iii., 11.) That such may be is accounted for by ascribing to music the property of universal speech open to all the intelligences of the universe, as follows: "Whenever notes that are evil and depraved affect men, a corresponding evil spirit responds to them; and when this evil spirit accomplishes its manifestations, licentious music is the result. Whenever notes that are correct affect men, a
The labours of Confucius in editing, pruning, and perfecting the poetry and music extant in his day were among his most celebrated feats. Of it he himself says: "I returned from Wei to Loo, and then the music was reformed and the pieces in the Imperial Songs and Songs of Praise all found their proper places." (Analects, bk. ix., c. xiv.) In the "Li Ki" it is also said: "In an age of disorder, ceremonies and music are forgotten and neglected, and music becomes licentious." (Bk. xvii., sect. ii., 12.) But this need for reform did not apply to all music. "The Shaou" was famous in his day as a noble piece of music, and "The Woo" scarcely second to it. Between these he is said to have distinguished, discriminatingly, thus: "The Master said of 'The Shaou' that it was perfectly beautiful and also perfectly good. He said of 'The Woo' that it was perfectly beautiful but not perfectly good." (Analects, bk. iii., c. xxv.) Of his appreciation of "The Shaou" this is related: "When the Master was in Ts‘e, he heard 'The Shaou'; and for three months he did not know the taste of flesh. 'I did not think,' he said, 'that music could have been made so excellent as this!'" (Analects, bk. vii., c. xiii.) Of the performance of another piece, "The Of this piece he elsewhere said: "The Kwan Ts‘eu is expressive of enjoyment without being licentious and of grief without being hurtfully excessive." (Analects, bk. iii., c. xx.) Obviously there were already performances of the oratorio or even the opera type, for in the "Li Ki" this is found: "Poetry gives the thought expression; singing prolongs the notes of the voice; pantomime puts the body into action. These three spring from the mind and musical instruments accompany them." (Bk. xvii., sect. ii., 21.) "The Shaou" was evidently something akin to opera. Confucius indicates as much when he speaks its praise in the following, commingled with dispraise of certain other songs: "Let the music be Shaou with its pantomimes! Banish the songs of Ch‘ing and keep aloof from specious orators! The songs of Ch‘ing are licentious; specious orators are dangerous." (Analects, bk. xv., c. x., v. 5, 6.) That "The Woo" was operatic is plainly shown by this description of it, given in the "Li Ki": "Regarding the music of Woo, in the first scene, the pantomimes proceed towards the north to imitate the marching of Wu Wang against Shang (or the Yin dynasty). In the second scene, they show the extinction of Shang. In the third scene,
The condemnation of the sage was visited in action as well as in words upon the following occasion: "The people of Ts‘e sent to Loo a present of female musicians, which Ke Hwan Tze accepted; and for three days no court was held. Confucius took his departure." (Analects, bk. xviii., c. iv.) Loo, it is to be recalled, was the very state where Confucius afterwards revised and harmonized the music of the realm. Of mere jingle, he spoke disparagingly, thus: "'It is music!' they say, 'It is music!' Are bells and drums all that is meant by music?" (Analects, bk. xvii., c. xi.) In the "Li Ki" it is said, likewise: "What you ask about is music, what you like is sound. Now music and sound are akin but they are not the same." (Bk. xvii., sect. iii., 9.) And yet greater purity of taste is indicated by this saying from the same book: "In music, more than aught else, there should be nothing showy or false." (Bk. xvii., sect. ii., 22.) Confucius was himself a musical performer upon many instruments, according to tradition. In the "Analects" is found this account of his skill upon "the musical stone": "The Master was playing one day on a musical stone in Wei, when a man carrying a straw basket passed the door of the house where Confucius was and said, 'His heart is full who beats the musical stone!'" (Analects, bk. xiv., c. xlii., v. i.) That he had comprehensive knowledge of the art is obvious, not merely from what he did for the music of Loo but also from the fact that this saying of his was deemed worthy to be handed down: "How to play music may be known. At the commencement of the piece, all the parts should sound together. As it proceeds, they should be in harmony, severally distinct and flowing, without break, and thus on to the conclusion." (Analects, bk. iii., c. xxiii.) That Chinese music had already progressed far beyond mere melodies is sufficiently plain, no doubt, from what has already been said. Yet it is germane to quote this from the "Li Ki": "Harmony is the thing principally sought in music." (Bk. xvii., sect. i., 29.) The following also indicates the reverence and His preference for classical music is voiced in this saying: "The men of former times, in the matters of ceremonies and music, were rustics, it is said, while the men of these later times, in ceremonies and music, are accomplished artists. If I have occasion to use those things, I follow the men of former times!" (Analects, bk. xi., c. i.) He included among the " three things men find enjoyment in, which are advantageous," this: "The discriminating study of ceremonies and music." (Analects, bk. xvi., c. v.) The method by which music is conceived of, as profoundly affecting the moral nature of man, is thus circumstantially and persuasively delineated in the "Li Ki": "Hence the superior man returns to the good affections proper to his nature, in order to bring his will into harmony with them, and compares the different qualities of actions in order to perfect his conduct. Notes that are evil and depraved and sights leading to disorder and licentiousness are not allowed to affect his ears and eyes. Licentious music and corrupted ceremonies are not admitted into the mind to
These most desirable results, however, by no means exhaust the conception of Confucius, of the benefits to the heart and mind which a full knowledge and appreciation of music can impart. The highest possibilities are set forth in these words of most enthusiastic eloquence, also in the pages of the "Li Ki": "When one has mastered music completely and regulates his heart and mind accordingly, the natural, correct, gentle, and sincere heart is easily developed and joy attends its development. This joy proceeds into a feeling of calm. This calm continues long. In this unbroken calm the man is Heaven within himself. Like unto Heaven, he is spiritual. Like unto Heaven, though he speak not, he is accepted. Spiritual, he commands awe, without displaying anger." (Bk. xvii., sect. iii., 23.) Ceremonies. "Ceremonies and music should not for a moment be neglected by any one." (Li Ki, bk. xvii., sect. iii., v. 23.) In this passage from the "Li Ki" and in many other sayings of Confucius and his followers, music and ceremonies are mentioned together. This is particularly true in the "Li Ki" in which both subjects are most discussed and from which all the quotations under this head have been taken. It is partly explained, as follows: "The sphere in which music manifests, is within; the sphere of
This is repeated in another place with emphasis and with apposite deductions therefrom, thus: "Music springs from the inner motions of the soul; ceremonies are the outward motions of the body. Therefore do men make ceremonies as few and short as possible but give free range to music." (Li Ki, bk. xvii., sect. iii., v. 26.) That Chinese ceremonies are, or were, few and short, none will perhaps credit, especially after looking through the portions relating to them in the works of Confucius. But it must be recalled—and it requires a distinct effort for the Occidental mind to conceive and to realize the thought—that ceremonies constitute a language,—a language, also, very erudite, richly expressive, ornate and comprehensive when developed as in China. This language, indeed, in its difficulties, as in many other respects, no doubt, is comparable only with a written language such as the ideographs of China constitute; and perhaps, like them, has within it the possibilities of a universal means of symbolical communication as by a printed text, entirely independent of the speech of men. It must have been with somewhat of this sentiment that the ancient sage viewed ceremonies, else his praise would be extravagant, indeed. It is said of those whose work was even then traditional: "The sages made music in response to Heaven and framed ceremonies in correspondenceCULTIVATION OF THE FINE ARTS