One of the most interesting but intricate questions that can occupy the attention of the Buddhist student is the history of the eighteen sects into which the Buddhist Church was at an early date separated. A clear account of the causes that led to the schisms and the several tenets held by the separatists was, in the opinion of the late Mr. Spence Hardy, one of the great desiderata in the history of this religion. The Chinese and Tibetan books contain much valuable information on these points. Among other works in the northern copy of the Tripi.taka, common in the monasteries of China and Japan, is one which contains three translations from Sanskrit of the treatise, written by Vasumitra, on the eighteen schools. This Vasumitra^[1] was one of the Buddhist patriarchs who lived probably about the time of Kanishka, that is, as far as we know at present with any certainty, about 42 B.C.^[2] His aim was evidently to reconcile the differences that existed in traditions, customs, and acknowledged scriptures; and it was probably under his auspices, or by his influence that the Great Council was held that rearranged and revised the Buddhist Canon as it is known in the North. There are three translations of this treatise into Chinese; the first is anonymous, and is most obscure. The second is by Chin-ti, of the Tsin dynasty. The third is by Hiwen Thsang, of the Tang dynasty. It would be rash to attempt a translation of these tracts into English without aid or direction--nor would the present writer have undertaken such a task--but, unfortunately, there is a parallel translation from the Tibetan in Vassilief's History of Buddhism (Second Supplement, p. 222). This translation by the learned writer named above was prepared after careful comparison of the Tibetan text with the three Chinese versions. The result is no doubt an accurate, though most obscure, reproduction of the work by Vasumitra. It may perhaps be useful to attempt an independent version of the three Chinese translations. Not that we can hope to render all plain, but with the purpose of inducing scholars in China to look into this matter, and endeavour to throw some light on the subject by comparing these translations and working independently in the production of others. The matter may appear of little consequence to some, and needless labour to others, but in the presence of facts, which are daily coming to our knowledge, it becomes almost the duty of those who are interested in the religious development of the Eastern mind, not only in India, but in other conntries more or less affected by Indian speculations, to search out the causes and the character of that development, and so connect it with the religions movements which occurred elsewhere about the same time. We proceed to give part of the translation by the anonymous Chinese writer, and which stands first in the Buddhist Canon.^[3]

1. A treatise on the eighteen schools (translator's name unknown).

In the 15th section of the latter volume of the work known as the Queries of Manjušrî (Manjušriparip.richchhâ), the subject being "The division into schools." [It is thus written:]

At this time Manjušrî questioned Buddha thus: "World-honoured! Explain, I pray you, what will be the different schools into which your followers will be separated in the future after your Nirvâ.na, and from what original division these schools will be formed?"

Buddha answered Manjušrî thus: "There will be twelve schools among my followers hereafter, in which (the separate interpretation of) my law will be preserved in the world. These schools will be the repositories of the diversified fruits of my Scriptures (pi.takas) without priority or inferiority--just as the taste of sea-water is everywhere the same--or as the twelve sons of one man all honest and true, so will be the exposition of my doctrine advocated by these schools. Manjušrî! the two original germs of these separate schools will be found in the rendering of my doctrine by the Mahâyâna and the Prajñâpâramitâ systems. The Šrâvakas, Pratyeka Buddhas, and different Buddhas (i.e., the doctrine which teaches these three degrees of religious advancement) will come from the Prajñâpâramitâ, Manjušrî! as earth, water, fire, wind and space compose the material and visible universe, so the Mahâyâna and the Prajñâpâramitâ compose the material of the system in which these different degrees of Šrâvakas, Pratyeka-Buddhas, and Buddhas are entertained."

Manjušrî asked Buddha this question: "World-honoured! and by what names will these scbools be known?"

Buddha replied: "The two schools first formed will be 'the Mahâsâ"mghikas^[4] and the Pi-li'^[5] (Sthaviras). Within a hundred years after my Nirvâ.na a school will be formed called 'Yeb-wu-in'^[6] [Ekabhyohârikhâs (Burnouf, tom. I, p. 357), or Ekavyavahârikâs (according to Vassilief's Buddhism, p. 227, n.)]. Again, within a hundred years from the formation of this school, another will be formed called 'Ko-kiu-li'^[7] [Kukkulikâs]. Within a hundred years from this another school will arise called To-man^[8] (Bâhušrutiyas). Within a hundred years from this there will be another school formed, called 'Che-tai-ho'^[9] [Chaitiyavâdâs]. Within another hundred years a school will arise called 'Eastern Mountain'^[10] [Pûrvašailâs]. Within a hundred years another school will arise from this called 'Northern Mountain'^[11] [Uttarašailâs]. These seven schools come from the Mahâsâ"mghikâs, and including the original Sa"mgha, or congregation, they are classified as eight schools.

"From the Sthaviras were formed eleven schools. Within a hundred years from the origin of the above school, there arose another, called 'Yeh-tsai-wu-in'^[12] (Sarvâstivâdas). Within a hundred years from this school proceeded another, called 'Yun-shan'^[13] (Haimavatâs). Within a hundred years from this school another will arise, called 'Vâtsiputriyas'^[14] (sons of the calf). Within a hundred years after this another school called 'Dharmottarîyas.'^[15] Within a hundred years from this another called 'Bhadrâyanîyas.'^[16] Within a hundred years from this school will come another called 'Yih-tsai-sho-kwei'^[17] (Sammatîyas). Within a hundred years another school will arise from this, called 'Jing-shan'^[18] (Jungle-hill, i.e., Shâ.n.nagarika). Within a hundred years after this arose another school called 'Tai-puh-ho-ki'^[19]

"One hundred and sixteen years after the Nirvâ.na of Buddha (in a) city called 'I-ta-fuh,' (I for Pa, therefore equivalent to Pa-ta-fuh, i.e., Pâtaliputra) there shall be a king called 'A-yu' (Ašoka) who shall gather (as in a square) the whole of Jambudwipa as his empire. In his time the division of the great congregation into schools shall begin. There shall arise a Bhikshu called 'Neng' (able), and another called 'Yin-un' (Nidâna), and another called 'To-man' (Bâhušrutiya ?)--these shall assert the necessity of teaching five propositions as a basis for religious instruction. The five Points are these:--

Profit and increase from others.
Ignorance.
Doubt.
Words according to the religious formula.
To obtain reason.

"It was from a consideration of these questions that the first two schools arose, to wit, the Mahâsâ"mghikâs and the Sthavîras.^[24]

"In the middle of the century (following) the Mahâsâ"mghikâs other schools arose as follows:--(1) 'Yih-shwo' [Ekavyavahârikâs], (2) 'Chu-shai-kan-shwo' [Lokottaravâdins], (3) 'Kiu-ku' [Gokulikas or Kukku.tikâs]. Again, in the middle of a century or so after the Mahâsâ"mghikas will originate other schools, called 'Shi-chi-lun.'^[25]

"Again, in the middle of the two hundred years, the heretical followers of the Mahâdêva, taking on themselves the vows of religious ascetics, fixed their abode in Mount Chaitiya. Again, from the Mahâsâ"mghikas arose three other schools, viz. Che-tika, 'Huh-pi-lo' (Apara), and Uttarašaila. Thus, from the Mahâsâ"mghika arose nine schools, viz. (1) Mahâsâ"mghikas, (2) Ekavyavahârika, (3) Lokottaravâdin, (4) Gokulika, (5) Bâhušrutîya, (6) Shi-chi, (7) Yan-ka, (8) Ho-lo, (9) Uttarašaila.

"In the middle of the three hundred years from the Sthavira school, arose from Controversies connected with the Canon of the Abhidharma, different schools, as follows: (1) Sarvâstivâdin, also called Hetuvâda, (2) Haimavatas. In the middle of the three hundred years again there arose another school called Vâtsiputrîyâs, from this school sprang another, called Dharmagupta (or Dharmottarîyas), another called Bhadrâyanîyas, and again, another called Mi-lî (where li is evidently a mistake for ti), otherwise named San-mi-ti (Sammatîyas), another school called the school of the six cities (Shannagarikas). Again, in the three hundredth year, the Sarvâstivâdins produced another school, viz., Mahîšâsakas, from which sprang the Dharmaguptas (so called from the Master of the school, whose name

We will now proceed to speak of the distinguishing tents {sic} of these various schools, both to their radical differences and also those held^[27] in common.

The following schools, Mahasâ"mghikas, Ekavyavâhârikas, Lokottaras, Kukkutikas, hold the views we are about to mention. They all say that the traditions respecting the Buddhas having been born into the world (as men) are incorrect--that the law is Tathâgata, and the only one in the world. They all say that the (system of religion known as) 'turning the Wheel of the Law' is at an end. They say that "things exist," "relationships exist," "truth exists." They say that Tathâgata is infintely extended, immeasurably glorious, eternal in duration, that to his power of recollection (nim, smriti), his power of faith (srâddhabala), his experience of joy, and his life, there is no end; he sleeps not, he speaks, asks, reflects not; they say that his existence is ever one and uniform (one heart), that all things born may obtain deliverance by having his instruction, that in his essential existence (one heart, ekachitta) Tathâgata comprehends all subjects (laws) in a moment by his own wisdom.